Answer to Exams - Outlining

I . Introduction
Describe the problem
Why is this analysis appropriate?
Importance of the problem
The scope of the review
How the results of the review will be applied.
Identify the research questions you hope to answer

II. Methodology
Identify the method used to identify and locate sources;
Explain the rationale used for selecting the sources to analyze;
Explain the procedures to be used for analyzing the sources;
Identify the criteria for evaluating the information found.

III. Analysis and Discussion (General points to consider)
Present evidence and ideas from sources
Concepts are organized by sub-topics
Sources are grouped by concepts instead of individual entities
Grouping may be related to research questions.
Validity of sources is stated to support your ultimate answers to your questions.
Cite each of your statements by placing the number(s) identifying the reference(s) which support your statement.

IV. Conclusions and Recommendations
Identify and synthesize findings
Systematically answer your research questions
Provide recommendations for
Future research
Classroom applications
Educational policies and procedures,
Program revisons, or
Other warranted situations
V. References
List each of your references using APA format.
Number each of your references so you can cite your evidence in the Analysis and Discussion section.

Final Exams Review Tips

The qualitative research
The quantitative research.
Summarization and Editing
Different Writing Styles
How to do Outlining
Contents of Research
Why do you do research,

Group Reports - Assignment Sept 2nd Week

The diffrenet groups shall report on one of the topics below. Explain to the class how citations are done on different sources of data and information. Use Visual Aids

Citation Styles Handbook: APA
Citing AuthorsCiting BooksCiting PeriodicalsCiting Other SourcesCiting Publication InformationCiting Internet SourcesIn-text Citation
:: Citing Authors – GROUP I: Single Author : Multiple Authors : Corporate Authorship : Edited Collections : Translated Works : Multiple Works by the Same Author(s) : No Author Identified

:: Citing Books GROUP II: Typical Book Entry : Reprinted or Republished Books : Specific Editions : Multi-volume Works : One Book in a Series : Chapter in an Edited Book: Reprinted or Republished Chapters or Articles

:: Citing Periodicals GROUP III: Typical Periodical Entries : Articles in Journals with Continuous Pagination : Articles in Journals with Non-continuous Pagination : Articles in Monthly Periodicals : Articles in Weekly Periodicals : Newspaper Articles : Editorials or Published Letters : Reviews in Periodicals : No Author Identified
:: Citing Other Sources GROUP IV: Artistic Works : Computer Software : Films or Videotapes : Interviews : Letters : Recordings : Television or Radio Programs : Unpublished Dissertations
:: Citing Publication Information GROUP V: Books : Journals and Other Periodicals
:: Citing Internet Sources GROUP VIElectronic Sources

:: In-text Citation InformationIn-text citation

MLA Styler on Citation of References

This chapter's guidelines for citing Internet sources are based on two sources: the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (2003) by Joseph Gibaldi. The MLA Handbook advises that you acknowledge sources "by keying brief parenthetical citations in your text to an alphabetical list of works that appears at the end of the paper" (142). Widely used by writers in literature, language studies, and other fields in the humanities, the MLA style of documentation allows writers to keep texts "as readable and as free of disruptions as possible" (143).
The MLA Handbook provides information about the purposes of research; suggestions for choosing topics; recommendations for using libraries; guidance for composing outlines, drafts, notes, and bibliographies; and advice on spelling, punctuation, abbreviations, and other stylistic matters. It also presents a style for documenting sources and gives directions for citing print sources in the text and preparing a list of Works Cited. Thorough acquaintance with the MLA Handbook will, as its author promises, "help you become a writer whose work deserves serious consideration" (xv). This chapter follows the conventions of MLA citation style.The MLA Handbook gives guidelines for making in-text references to print sources. The following section shows how you can apply the same principles to citing online sources in your text.
1. Link an in-text citation of an Internet source to a corresponding entry in the Works Cited.
According to the MLA Handbook, each text reference to an outside source must point clearly to a specific entry in the list of Works Cited. The essential elements of an in-text citation are the author's name (or the document's title, if no author is identified) and a page reference or other information showing where in a source cited material appears.
Create an in-text reference to an Internet source by using a signal phrase, a parenthetical citation, or both a previewing sentence and a parenthetical citation.
Box 5.1Using italics and underlining in MLA style
The MLA Handbook provides the following advice for the use of italics and underlining in word-processed texts intended for print-only publication:
Many word-processing programs and computer printers permit the reproduction of italic type. In material that will be graded, edited or typeset, however, the type style of every letter and punctuation mark must be easily recognizable. Italic type is sometimes not distinctive enough for this purpose, and you can avoid ambiguity by using underlining when you intend italics. If you wish to use italics rather than underlining, check your instructor's or editor's preferences. (94)
However, when composing in HTML, don't substitute underlining for italics, because underlining in HTML indicates that the underlined text is an active hypertext link. (All HTML editing programs automatically underline any text linked to another hypertext or Web site.)
When composing Web documents, use italics for titles, for emphasis, and for words, letters, and numbers referred to as such. When you write with programs such as email that don't allow italics, type an underscore mark _like this_ before and after text you would otherwise italicize or underline.
Using a signal phrase To introduce cited material consisting of a short quotation, paraphrase, or summary, use either a signal phrase set off by a comma or a signal verb with a that clause, as in the following examples. (See 4e for a discussion of signal phrases and verbs.)

Here are the Works Cited entries for these two sources:
Landsburg, Steven E. "Who Shall Inherit the Earth?" Slate 1 May 1997. 1 Oct. 1999 < http://www.slate.com/Economics/97-05-01/ Economics.asp>.
Mitchell, Jason P. Letter. "PMLA Letter." Home page. 10 May 1997. 1 Nov. 1999 <http://sunset.backbone.olemiss.edu/~jmitchel/pmla.htm>.
Using a parenthetical citation To identify the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary, place the author's last name in parentheses after the cited material.
"Parents know in advance, and with near certainty, that they will be addicted to their children" (Landsburg).
In response to Victor Brombert's 1990 MLA presidential address on the "politics of critical language," one correspondent suggests that "some literary scholars envy the scientists their wonderful jargon with its certainty and precision and thus wish to emulate it by creating formidably technical-sounding words of their own" (Mitchell).
Here are the Works Cited entries for these sources:
Landsburg, Steven E. "Who Shall Inherit the Earth?" Slate 1 May 1997. 1 Oct. 1999 <http://www.slate.com/Economics/97-05-01/ Economics.asp>.
Mitchell, Jason P. "PMLA Letter." Home page. 10 May 1997. 1 Nov. 1999 <http://sunset.backbone.olemiss.edu/~jmitchel/pmla.htm>.
Using a previewing sentence and a parenthetical citation To introduce and identify the source of a long quotation (one comprising more than four lines in your essay or research paper), use a previewing sentence that ends in a colon. By briefly announcing the content of an extended quotation, a previewing sentence tells readers what to look for in the quotation. Indent the block quotation ten spaces (or two paragraph indents) from the left margin. At the end of the block quotation, cite the source in parentheses after the final punctuation mark.
That the heroic and historically important deeds of previously unknown women should be included in history books is evident from the following notice:
Event: April 26, 1777, Sybil Ludington. On the night of April 26, 1777, Sybil Ludington, age 16, rode through towns in New York and Connecticut to warn that the Redcoats were coming. . . to Danbury, CT. All very Paul Reverish, except Sybil completed HER ride, and SHE thus gathered enough volunteers to help beat back the British the next day. Her ride was twice the distance of Revere's. No poet immortalized (and faked) her accomplishments, but at least her hometown was renamed after her. However, recently the National Rifle Association established a Sybil Ludington women's "freedom" award for meritorious service in furthering the purposes of the NRA as well as use of firearms in competition or in actual life-threatening situations although Sybil never fired a gun. (Stuber)

Here is the Works Cited entry:
Stuber, Irene. "April 26, 1996: Episode 638." Women of Achievement and Herstory: A Frequently-Appearing Newsletter. 3 May 1996. 11 Dec. 1997 <http://www.academic.marist.edu/woa/ index.htm>.
2.
Substitute Internet text divisions for page numbers.
The examples in 5a-1 assume that an Internet source has no internal divisions (pages, parts, chapters, headings, sections, subsections). The MLA Handbook, however, requires that you identify the location of any cited information as precisely as possible in parentheses. Because Internet sources are rarely marked with page numbers, you will not always be able to show exactly where cited material comes from. If a source has internal divisions, use these instead of page numbers in your citation. Be sure to use divisions inherent in the document and not those provided by your browsing software.
A text reference to a source with divisions may appear in the text along with the author's name or be placed in parentheses after a quotation, paraphrase, or summary.
As TyAnna Herrington notes in her Introduction, "Nicholas Negroponte's Being Digital provides another welcome not only into an age of technological ubiquity, but into a way of 'being' with technology."
"Negroponte's uncomplicated, personal tone fools the reader into a sense that his theses are simplistic" (Herrington "Introduction").
Here is the Works Cited entry:
Herrington, TyAnna K. "Being Is Believing." Rev. of Being Digital, by Nicholas Negroponte. Kairos: A Journal for Teaching Writing in Webbed Environments 1.1 (1996) at "Reviews." 24 May 1996 <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.1>.
3.
Use source-reflective statements to show where cited material ends.
The MLA practice of parenthetical page-number citation lets you indicate precisely where information from a printed source ends. Many Internet sources, however, appear as single screens, and MLA style does not require parenthetical page citations for one-page works. By analogy, a single-screen document cited in text needs no page citation. To let your readers know where your use of an Internet source with no text divisions ends, use a source-reflective statement.
Source-reflective statements give you an opportunity to assert your authorial voice. Writers use source-reflective statements to provide editorial comment, clarification, qualification, amplification, dissent, agreement, and so on. In the following example, the absence of a source-reflective statement creates uncertainty as to where use of an Internet source ends.
According to TyAnna Herrington, Nicholas Negroponte has the ability to make complex technological issues understandably simple. For those who are not techno-philes, this is a blessing; it allows them to apprehend the real significance of digital technology without feeling that such ideas are too difficult to consider.
In the next example, the writer has added a source-reflective statement to show that use of the source has ended.

Here is the Works Cited entry:
Herrington, TyAnna K. "Being Is Believing." Rev. of Being Digital, by Nicholas Negroponte. Kairos: A Journal for Teaching Writing in Webbed Environments 1.1 (1996) at "Reviews." 24 May 1996 <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.1>.

For updates to MLA citation style, consult the MLA's Web site <http://www.mla.org>
When using MLA style, place a list of cited sources, arranged alphabetically, after the text of your essay and any explanatory notes. The MLA Handbook recommends that you "draft the [Works Cited] section in advance, so that you will know what information to give in parenthetical references as you write" (144). Doing this makes in-text citation of sources easier by giving you an idea of what in-text reference options will work best for each citation.
Referring to print sources, the MLA Handbook gives the following general models for Works Cited entries:


Box 5.2Using hypertext to document sources on the Web
The hypertext environment of the World Wide Web doesn’t just alter the way you do research, it also lets you document sources in a new way—by using hypertext links. Electronic journals published on the Web are already replacing traditional notes, Works Cited listings, appendixes, and other supporting text with links to the documents being cited. To read more about hypertext documentation, see Chapter 10 of this book. For an example of how it works, look at the format of Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger, "Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet" in Kairos: A Journal for Teaching Writing in Webbed Environments 1.2 (1996) at <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/1.2/ inbox/mla.html> or any essay published in Kairos at <http://english.ttu. edu/kairos>.
The MLA Handbook also presents numerous variations that accommodate a variety of print sources (e.g., a multivolume work, an editorial). For detailed information on creating a Works Cited list, see Chapter 4 of the MLA Handbook, "Documentation: Preparing the List of Works Cited."
For writers creating in-text citations and Works Cited lists for online sources, the MLA Handbook provides the following general recommendations:
· Download or print any online material you plan to use, in case it becomes inaccessible online later.
· Don't introduce a hyphen at the break of a URL between two lines.
· If you must divide a URL between two lines, break it only after a slash.1
Section 4.9 of the MLA Handbook includes models for numerous types of online sources (e.g., an online book, an advertisement, a multidisc publication). The following models for Works Cited entries, based on the recommendations of the MLA Handbook, cover the types of sources most often cited by student and professional writers.
1.
World Wide Web site
When you document sources from the World Wide Web, the MLA suggests that your Works Cited entries contain as many items from the following list as are relevant and available:
· Name of the author, editor, compiler, or translator (if available and relevant), alphabetized by last name and followed by any appropriate abbreviations, such as ed.
· Title of a poem, short story, article, or other short work within a scholarly project, database, or periodical, in quotation marks
· Title of a book, in italics or underlined
· Name of the editor, compiler, or translator of a book (if applicable and if not cited earlier), preceded by any appropriate abbreviation, such as ed.
· Publication information for any print version
· Title of the scholarly project, database, periodical, or professional or personal site (in italics or underlined), or, for a professional or personal site with no title, a description such as home page2
· Name of the editor of a scholarly project or database (if known)
· Version number (if not part of the title) or, for a journal, the volume, issue, or other identifying number
· Date of electronic publication or posting or latest update, whichever is most recent (if known)
· Name of any institution or organization sponsoring or associated with the Web site
· Date you accessed the source
· URL (in angle brackets)
Although no single entry will contain all fourteen items of information, all Works Cited entries for Web sources contain the following basic information:
Online document
Author's name (last name first). Document title. Date of Internet publication. Date of access .

Box 5.3Formatting Works Cited Entries in HTML
Some HTML editors don’t let you easily indent the second line of a Works Cited entry. In such instances, bullet the first line of an entry.
Landsburg, Steven E. "Who Shall Inherit the Earth?" Slate 1 May 1997. 1 Oct. 1999 <http://www.slate.com/Economics/97-05-01/ Economics.asp>.
Mitchell, Jason P. "PMLA Letter." Homepage. 10 May 1997. 1 Nov. 1999 <http://sunset.backbone.olemiss.edu/~jmitchel/pmla.htm>.

To see how to document specific types of Web sources, refer to the examples throughout this section.
Personal site
Pellegrino, Joseph. Home page. 16 Dec. 1998. 1 Oct. 1999 < http://www.english.eku.edu /pellegrino/personal.htm>.
Professional site
The William Faulkner Society Home Page. Ed. Mortimer, Gail. 16 Sept. 1999. William Faulkner Soc. 1 Oct. 1999 <http://www.acad.swarthmore.edu/faulkner>.
NAIC Online. 29 Sept. 1999. National Association of Inventors Corporation. 1 Oct. 1999 <http://www.better-investing.org/>.
U. S. Department of Education (ED) Home Page. 29 Sept. 1999. US Dept. of Education. 1 Oct. 1999 <http://www.ed.gov/index.html>.
William Faulkner on the Web 7 July 1999. U of Mississippi. 20 Sept. 1999 <http://www.mcsr.olemiss.edu/~egjbp/faulkner/ faulkner.html>.
Book
An online book may be the electronic text of part or all of a printed book, or a book-length document available only on the Internet (e.g., a work of hyperfiction).
Bird, Isabella L. A Lady's Life in the Rocky Mountains. New York, 1881. Victorian Women Writers Project. Ed. Perry Willett. 27 May 1999. Indiana U. 4 Oct. 1999 < http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/ bird/rocky.html>.
Bryant, Peter J. "The Age of Mammals." Biodiversity and Conservation. 28 Aug. 1999. 4 Oct. 1999 <http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/ ~sustain/bio65/lec02/b65lec02.htm>.
Harnack, Andrew, and Eugene Kleppinger. Preface. Online! A Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000. 5 Jan. 2000. <http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/ online>.
Article in an electronic journal (ejournal)
Joyce, Michael. "On the Birthday of the Stranger (in Memory of John Hawkes)." Evergreen Review 5 Mar. 1999. 12 May 1999 <http://www.evergreenreview.com/102/evexcite/joyce/nojoyce.html>.
Wysocki, Anne Frances. "Monitoring Order: Visual Desire, the Organization of Web Pages, and Teach the Rules of Design." Kairos: A Journal for Teachers of Writing in Webbed Environments 3.2 (1998). 21 Oct. 1999 <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/3.2/features/wysocki/mOrder0.html>.
Article in an electronic magazine (ezine)
Adler, Jerry. "Ghost of Everest." Newsweek 17 May 1999. 19 May 1999 <http://newsweek.com/nw-srv/issue/20_99a/printed/int/socu/ so0120_1.htm>.
Newspaper article
Wren, Christopher. "A Body on Mt. Everest, a Mystery Half-Solved." New York Times on the Web 5 May 1999. 13 May 1999 <http://search.nytimes.com/search/daily/bin/fastweb?getdoc+site+ site+87604+0+wAAA+%22a%7Ebody%7Eon%7Emt.%7Eeverest%22>.
Review
1. Michael Parfit, review of The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest, by Anatoli Boukreev and G. Weston DeWalt, New York Times on the Web 7 Dec. 1997, 4 Oct. 1999 <http://search. nytimes.com/ books/97/12/07/reviews/971207.07parfitt.html>.
Editorial
"Public Should Try Revised Student Achievement Test." Editorial. Lexington Herald-Leader 13 Apr. 1999. 4 Oct. 1999 <http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/041399/ editorialdocs/413test-1.htm>.
Letter to the editor
Gray, Jeremy. Letter. Lexington Herald-Leader. 7 May 1999. 7 May 1999 <http://www.kentuckyconnect.com/heraldleader/news/ 050799/lettersdocs/507letters.htm>.
Scholarly project or information database
Center for Reformation and Renaissance Studies. Ed. Laura E. Hunt and William Barek. May 1998. U of Toronto. 11 May 1999 <http://CITD.SCAR.UTORONTO.CA/crrs/index.html>.
The Internet Movie Database. May 1999. Internet Movie Database Ltd. 11 May 1999 <http://us.imdb.com>.
Short text within a larger project or database
Whitman, Walt. "Beat! Beat! Drums!" Project Bartleby Archive. Ed. Steven Van Leeuwen. May 1998. Columbia U. 11 May 1999 <http://www.bartleby.com/142/112.html>.
Other Web sources
When documenting other Web sources—for example, an audio or film clip, a map, or a painting—provide a descriptive phrase (e.g., map) if needed.
di Bondone, Giotto. The Morning of Christ. 1305. WebMuseum, Paris. 1 June 1999 <http://metalab.unc.edu/wm/paint/auth/ giotto/mourning-christ/mourning-christ.jpg>.
"Methuen, Massachusetts." Map. U.S. Gazeteer. US Census Bureau. 4 Oct. 1999 <http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/gazetteer>.
1.
Government publication
United States. Senate Comittee on the Judiciary. Children, Violence, and the Media: A Report for Parents and Policy Makers. By Orrin G. Hatch. 14 Sept. 1999. 18 Feb. 2003, <http://judiciary.senate.gov/oldsite/mediavio.htm>.
2.
Material from a Subscription Service
To document an article or other material accessed through a library or institutional subscription service such as EBSCOhost or Lexis-Nexis, provide the following information:
Publication information for the source
Name of the database, in italics or underlined
Name of the service
Name of library
Date of Access
URL of subscription service's home page, if known
Maynard, W. Barksdale. "Thoreau's House at Walden." Art Bulletin 81 (1999): 303-25. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost. Eastern Kentucky U Lib., Richmond. 19 Nov. 2002 <http://www.ebscohost.com>.
3.
Email message
To document an email message, provide the following information:
Author's name
Subject line, in quotation marks
Description of message that includes recipient (e.g., e-mail to the author)3
Date of sending
Kleppinger, Eugene. "How to Cite Information from the Web." E-mail to Andrew Harnack. 10 Jan. 1999.
4.
Web discussion forum posting
To document a posting to a Web discussion forum, provide the following information:
Author's name
Title of posting, in quotation marks
Phrase online posting
Date of posting
Name of forum
Date of access
URL, in angle brackets
Colleen. "Climbing Questions." Online posting. 20 Mar. 1999. Climbing Forum. 27 May 1999 <http://www2.gorp.com/forums/ Index.cfm?CFApp=55&Message_ID=18596>.
Marcy, Bob. "Think They'll Find Any Evidence of Mallory & Irvine?" Online posting. 30 Apr. 1999. Mt. Everest >99 Forum. 28 May 1999 < http://everest.mountainzone.com/99/forum>.
5.
Listserv message
To document a listserv message, provide the following information:
Author's name
Subject line, in quotation marks
Phrase online posting
Date of posting
Name of listserv
Date of access
Address of listserv, in angle brackets
Holland, Norman. "Re: Colorless Green Ideas." Online posting. 30 May 1999. Psyart. 1 June 1999 <http://web.clas.ufl.edu/ipsa/ psyart.htm>.
Parente, Victor. "On Expectations of Class Participation." Online posting 27 May 1996. 29 May 1996 < philosed@sued.syr.edu>.
6.
Newsgroup message
To document information posted in a newsgroup discussion, provide the following information:
Author's name
Subject line, in quotation marks
Phrase online posting
date of posting
Date of access
Name of newsgroup with prefix news:, in angle brackets
Kaipiainen, Petri. "Re: Did Everest see Everest?" Online posting. 4 May 1999. 2 June 1999 .
If, after following all the suggestions in 4c-3, you cannot determine the author's name, then use the author's email address, enclosed in angle brackets, as the main entry. When deciding where in your Works Cited to insert such a source, treat the first letter of the email address as though it were capitalized.
<lrm583@aol.com> "Thinking of Adoption." 26 May 1996. 29 May 1996 .
7.
Real-time communication
To document a real-time communication, such as those posted in MOOs, MUDs, and IRCs, provide the following information:
Name of speaker(s) (if known)
Description of event
Date of event
Forum (e.g., Diversity University)
Date of access
URL or other Internet address, in angle brackets
Fox, Rita. ENG 301 Class MOO: Concept mapping for Web project. 2 Feb. 1999. Diversity University. 3 Feb. 1999 <http://moo.du.org:8000>.
Sowers, Henry, Miram Fields, and Jane Gurney. Online collaborative conference. 29 May 1999. LinguaMOO. 29 May 1999 <telnet://lingua.utdallas.edu:8888>.
8.
Telnet, FTP, and gopher sites
Telnet site
The most common use of telnet is for participation in real-time communication (see 5b-6). Although the use of telnet for document retrieval has declined dramatically with increased Web access to texts, numerous archived documents are available only by telnet. To document a telnet site or a file available via telnet, provide the following information:
Name of author or agency
Title of document
Date of publication
Date of access
Telnet address, in angle brackets, with directions for accessing document
Directions for accessing document
Environmental Protection Agency. "About the Clean Air Act (CAA) Database." 2 June 1999 <telnet://fedworld.gov>. Path: Regulatory Agencies.
FTP site
To document a file available for downloading via file transfer protocol, provide the following information:
Name of author or file
Title of document
Size of document (if relevant), in brackets
Any print publication information, italicized or underlined where appropriate
Date of online publication, if available
Date of access
Complete FTP address, in angle brackets
"everest2.gif" [535K]. 4 Apr. 1993. 3 June 1999 <ftp://ftp.ntua.gr/ pub/images/views/sorted.by.type/Mountains/everest2.gif>.
Mathews, J. Preface. Numerical Methods for Mathematics, Science, and Engineering. 2nd ed. N.p.: Prentice Hall, 1992. 8 June 1999 <ftp://ftp.ntua.gr/pub/netlib/textbook/index.html>.
Gopher site
The gopher search protocol brings text files from all over the world to your computer. Popular in the early 1990s, especially at universities, gopher was a step toward the World Wide Web's hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Although the advent of HTML documents and their retrieval on the Web has diminished the use of gopher, many documents can still be accessed through Web browsers.
To document information obtained by using the gopher search protocol, provide the following information:
Author's name
Title of document
Any print publication information, italicized or underlined where appropriate
Date of online publication
Date of access
Gopher address, in angle brackets, with directions for accessing document
Directions for accessing document
Goody, Jack. "History and Anthropology: Convergence and Divergence." Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, 75.2 (1993). 2 June 1999 <gopher://gopher.sinica.edu.tw/00/ioe/engbull/75b.txt>. Path: Anthropology.

Contents and Citation Readings

Citation content
Citation content may include:
of a book: author(s), book title, publisher, date of publication, and page number(s) if appropriate;
of a journal article: author(s), article title, journal title, volume and issue numbers, date of publication, and page number(s);
of a newspaper: author(s), article title, name of newspaper, section title and page number(s) if desired, date of publication;
of a work on the Web: author(s), article and publication title where appropriate, as well as a URL, and a date when the site was accessed.
of a play: inline citations offer part, scene, and line numbers, the latter separated by periods: 4.452 refers to scene 4, line 452. For example, "In Eugene Onegin, Onegin rejects Tanya when she is free to be his, and only decides he wants her when she is already married" (Pushkin 4.452-53).
of a poem: If the text is more than one line of the poem, use a slash (/) with a space before and after it to indicate the separate lines. Include the word "line" or "lines" in the Harvard reference. For example: "For I must love because I live / And life in me is what you give." (Brennan, lines 15-16)
American Psychological Association (APA) style is a widely accepted style of documentation, particularly in the social sciences. APA style specifies the names and order of headings, formatting, and organization of citations and references, and the arrangement of tables, figures, footnotes, and appendices, as well as other manuscript and documentation features. APA style uses Harvard referencing, also known as the author-date system of citations and parenthetical referencing, keyed to a subsequent list of "References." The APA Publication Manual provides basic guidelines for documenting both print and electronic resources.

In-Text Citations: The Basics
Reference citations in text are covered on pages 207-214 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.
Note: APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research. E.g., Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has found...
APA Citation Basics
When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.
If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference.
In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining
Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.
(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)
When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born Cyborgs.
Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's Vertigo."
Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.
Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."
Short Quotations
If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.
According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
Long Quotations
Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.
Jones's (1998) study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)
Summary or Paraphrase
If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)
According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners.APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).
In-Text Citations: Author/Authors
APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page numbers.
Citing an Author or Authors
A Work by Two Authors: Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors' names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses.
Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) showed...
(Wegener & Petty, 1994)
A Work by Three to Five Authors: List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source.
(Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993)
In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
(Kernis et al., 1993)
In et al., et should not be followed by a period.
Six or More Authors: Use the first author's name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses.
Harris et al. (2001) argued...
(Harris et al., 2001)
Unknown Author: If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation marks.
A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001).
Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the author's name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author.
Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source.
According to the American Psychological Association (2000),...
If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations.
First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000)
Second citation: (MADD, 2000)
Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon.
(Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983)
Authors With the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names.
(E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998)
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: If you have two sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation.
Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that...
Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwards: When citing an Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterward in-text, cite the appropriate author and year as usual.
(Funk & Kolln, 1992)
Personal Communication: For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference list.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Citing Indirect Sources
If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in the parentheses.
Johnson argued that...(as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 102).
Note:When citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above.
Electronic Sources
If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the author-date style.
Kenneth (2000) explained...
Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date").
Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.).
Sources Without Page Numbers
When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the ¶ symbol, or the abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, ¶ 5) or (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. Note that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use the Find function in their browser to locate any passages you cite.
According to Smith (1997), ... (Mind over Matter section, para. 6).
Note: Never use the page numbers of Web pages you print out; different computers print Web pages with different pagination.
Footnotes and Endnotes
APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.
When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.
Scientists examined—over several years1—the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.2 (These have now been transferred to the Chauan Museum.3)
All footnotes should appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout.
1 While the method of examination for the wooly-wooly yak provides important insights to this research, this document does not focus on this particular species.
Content Notes
Content Notes provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing Content Notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.
Content Notes can also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.
1 See Blackmur (1995), especially chapters three and four, for an insightful analysis of this extraordinary animal.
Copyright Permission Notes
If you quote more than 500 words of published material or think you may be in violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list.
Follow the same formatting rules as with Content Notes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.
If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information. You should also submit written permission along with your work. Begin the citation with “Note.”
Note. From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title, 21, p. 122. Copyright 2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.
Reference List: Author/Authors
The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.)
Single Author
Last name first, followed by author initials.
Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.
Two Authors
List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of "and."
Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.
Three to Six Authors
List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand.
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.
More Than Six Authors
If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al."
Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245.
Organization as Author
American Psychological Association. (2003).
Unknown Author
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the source's title instead of an author's name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Webster's, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993).
Two or More Works by the Same Author
Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first).
Berndt, T.J. (1981).
Berndt, T.J. (1999).
When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first.
Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students' adjustment to school. Educational Psychologist, 34, 15-28.
Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on adolescents' adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312-1329.
References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same.
Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury instructions. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6, 629-654.
Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of likelihood judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25-43.
Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims..."
Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.
Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial intentions and behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643.
Introductions, Prefaces, Forewords, and Afterwards
Cite the publishing information about a book as usual, but cite Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterward (whatever title is applicable) as the chapter of the book.
Funk, R. & Kolln, M. (1998). Introduction. In E.W. Ludlow (Ed.), Understanding English Grammar (pp. 1-2). Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Reference List: Articles in Periodicals
Basic Form
APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined.
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages.
Article in Journal Paginated by Volume
Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc.
Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896.
Article in Journal Paginated by Issue
Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or underlined.
Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.
Article in a Magazine
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
Article in a Newspaper
Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4.
Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A.
Letter to the Editor
Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor]. Scientific American, 287(2), 12.
Review
Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-knower: A hero under control ]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467.
Reference List: Books
Basic Format for Books
Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
Note: For "Location," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state.
Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Edited Book, No Author
Duncan, G.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Edited Book with an Author or Authors
Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K.V. Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor.
A Translation
Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities. (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814).
Note: When you cite a republished work, like the one above, work in your text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951).
Edition Other Than the First
Helfer, M.E., Keme, R.S., & Drugman, R.D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher.
Note: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers.
O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.
Multivolume Work
Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York: Scribner's.
Reference List: Other Print Sources
An Entry in An Encyclopedia
Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.
Work Discussed in a Secondary Source
List the source the work was discussed in:
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.
NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClelland's work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation:
In Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ...
Dissertation Abstract
Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 7741A.
Government Document
National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Report From a Private Organization
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author.
Conference Proceedings
Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL '95: The First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reference List: Electronic Sources
Article From an Online Periodical
Note: In 2007, the APA released several additions/modifications for documentation of electronic sources in the APA Style Guide to Electronic References. These changes are reflected in the entries below. Please note that there are no spaces used with brackets in APA.
Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available, including an issue number in parentheses. Provide a retrieval date only if the information is likely to be updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of blogs and wikis). Since many online periodicals appear in their "final" form, a retrieval date is not necessary.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, (if necessary) from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006, from http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving
Online Scholarly Journal Article
Since online materials can potentially change URL's, APA recommends providing a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), when it is available, as opposed to the URL. DOI's are an attempt to provide stable, long-lasting links for online articles. They are unique to their documents and consist of a long alphanumeric code. Many-but not all-publishers will provide an article's DOI on the first page of the document.
Note that some online bibliographies provide an article's DOI but may "hide" the code under a button which may read "Article" or may be an abbreviation of a vendors name like "CrossRef" or "PubMed." This button will usually lead the user to the full article which will include the DOI. Find DOI's from print publications or ones that go to dead links with CrossRef.org's "DOI Resolver," which is displayed in a central location on their home page.
Article From an Online Periodical with DOI Assigned
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number. doi:0000000/000000000000
Brownlie, D. Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41(11/12), 1245-1283. doi:10.1108/03090560710821161
Article From an Online Periodical with no DOI Assigned
Online scholarly journal articles without a DOI require a URL but do not require a retrieval date. Provide a retrieval date only if the information is likely to be updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of blogs and wikis). Since most journal articles appear in their "final" form, a retrieval date is not needed.
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8.Retrieved February 20, 2001, from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html
If the article appears as a printed version as well, the URL is not required. Use "Electronic version" in brackets after the article's title.
Whitmeyer, J.M. (2000). Power through appointment [Electronic version]. Social Science Research, 29, 535-555.
Article From a Database
When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.)
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database.
Abstract
If you only cite an abstract but the full text of the article is also available, cite the online abstract as other online citations, adding "[Abstract]" after the article or source name. If only the abstract is available, write "Abstract retrieved from" and provide the database name or URL.
Paterson, P. (2008). How well do young offenders with Asperger Syndrome cope in custody?: Two prison case studies [Abstract]. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 54-58. Retrieved from EBSCO Host database.
Bossong, G. Ergativity in Basque. Linguistics, 22(3), 341-392. Abstract retrieved from Linguistics Abstracts Online.
Newspaper Article
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
Electronic Books
Electronic books may include books found on personal websites, databases, or even in audio form. Use the following format if the book you are using is only provided in a digital format or is difficult to find in print. If the work is not directly available online or must be purchased, use "Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and point readers to where they can find it.
De Huff, E.W. Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo Indian tales. Retrieved from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html
Davis, J. Familiar birdsongs of the Northwest. Available from http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio?inkey=1-9780931686108-0
Chapter/Section of a Web document or Online Book Chapter
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number). Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/.
Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL Rewriting Engine. In Apache HTTP Server Version 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules.) Retrieved March 10, 2006, from http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.html
Peckinpaugh, J. (2003). Change in the Nineties. In J.S. Bough and G.B. DuBois (Eds.), A century of growth in America. Retrieved from GoldStar database.
NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.
Online Book Reviews
Cite the information as you normally would for the work you are quoting. (The first example below is from a newspaper article; the second is from a scholarly journal.) In brackets, write "Review of the book" and give the title of the reviewed work. Provide the web address after the words "Retrieved from," if the review is freely available to anyone. If the review comes from a subscription service or database, write "Available from" and provide the information where the review can be purchased.
Zacharek, S. (2008, April 27). Natural women [Review of the book Girls like us ]. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/27/books/review/Zachareck-t.html?pagewanted=2
Castle, G. (2007). New millennial Joyce [Review of the books Twenty-first Joyce, Joyce's critics: Transitions in reading and culture, and Joyce's messianism: Dante, negative existence, and the messianic self]. Modern Fiction Studies, 50(1), 163-173. Available from Project MUSE Web site: http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modern_fiction_studies/toc/mfs52.1.html
Dissertation/Thesis from a Database
Biswas, S. (2008). Dopamine D3 receptor: A neuroprotective treatment target in Parkinson's disease. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations. (AAT 3295214)
Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
Often encyclopedias and dictionaries do not provide bylines (authors' names). When no byline is present, move the entry name to the front of the citation. Provide publication dates if present or specify (n.d.) if no date is present in the entry. Because updates and modifications are not normally specified, provide the retrieval date in the citation. When listing the URL, give only the home or index root as opposed to the URL for the entry.
Feminism. (n.d.) In Encyclopædia Britannica online. Retrieved March 16, 2008, from http:// www.britannica.com
Online Bibliographies and Annotated Bibliographies
Jürgens, R. (2005). HIV/AIDS and HCV in Prisons: A Select Annotated Bibliography. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/alt_formats/hpb-dgps/pdf/intactiv/hiv-vih-aids-sida-prison-carceral_e.pdf
Data Sets
Point readers to raw data by providing a Web address (use "Retrieved from") or a general place that houses data sets on the site (use "Available from").
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. Indiana income limits [Data file]. Retrieved from http://www.huduser.org/Datasets/IL/IL08/in_fy2008.pdf
Graphic Data (e.g. Interactive Maps and Other Graphic Representations of Data)
Give the name of the researching organization followed by the date. In brackets, provide a brief explanation of what type of data is there and in what form it appears. Finally, provide the project name and retrieval information.
Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment. (2007). [Graph illustration the SORCE Spectral Plot May 8, 2008]. Solar Spectral Data Access from the SIM, SOLSTICE, and XPS Instruments. Retrieved from http://lasp.colorado.edu/cgi-bin/ion-p?page=input_data_for_ spectra.ion
Qualitative Data and Online Interviews
If an interview is not retrievable in audio or print form, cite the interview only in the text (not in the reference list) and provide the month, day, and year in the text. If an audio file or transcript is available online, use the following model, specifying the medium in brackets (e.g. [Interview transcript, Interview audio file]):
Butler, C. (Interviewer) & Stevenson, R. (Interviewee). (1999). Oral History 2 [Interview transcript]. Retrieved from Johnson Space Center Oral Histories Project Web site: http:// www11.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/oral_histories.htm
Online Lecture Notes and Presentation Slides
When citing online lecture notes, be sure to provide the file format in brackets after the lecture title (e.g. PowerPoint slides, Word document).
Hallam, A. Duality in consumer theory [PDF document]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes Online Web site: http://www.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ501/Hallam/index.html
Roberts, K. F. (1998). Federal regulations of chemicals in the environment [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://siri.uvm.edu/ppt/40hrenv/index.html
Nonperiodical Web Document, Web Page, or Report
List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes have to hunt around to find the information; don't be lazy. If there is a page like http://www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and somepage.htm doesn't have the information you're looking for, move up the URL to http://www.somesite.com/):
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved month day, year (only if the text may potentially change over time), from http://Web address
NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide a URL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Also, if there isn't a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date.
Computer Software/Downloaded Software
Do not cite standard office software (e.g. Word, Excel) or programming languages. Provide references only for specialized software.
Ludwig, T. (2002). PsychInquiry [computer software]. New York: Worth.
Software that is downloaded from a Web site should provide the software’s version and year when available.
Hayes, B., Tesar, B., & Zuraw, K. (2003). OTSoft: Optimality Theory Software (Version 2.1) [Software]. Available from http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/otsoft/
E-mail
E-mails are not included in the list of references, though you parenthetically cite them in your main text: (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
Online Forum or Discussion Board Posting
Include the title of the message, and the URL of the newsgroup or discussion board. Please note that titles for items in online communities (e.g. blogs, newsgroups, forums) are not italicized. If the author's name is not available, provide the screen name. Place identifiers like post or message numbers, if available, in brackets. If available, provide the URL where the message is archived (e.g. "Message posted to..., archived at...").
Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld of toylandia [Msg 25]. Message posted to http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/messages/00025.html
Blog (Weblog) and Video Blog Post
Include the title of the message and the URL. Please note that titles for items in online communities (e.g. blogs, newsgroups, forums) are not italicized. If the author’s name is not available, provide the screen name.
Dean, J. (2008, May 7). When the self emerges: Is that me in the mirror? Message posted to http://www.spring.org.uk/
the1sttransport. (2004, September 26). Psychology Video Blog #3 [Video File]. Video posted to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqM90eQi5-M
Wikis
Please note that the APA Style Guide to Electronic References warns writers that wikis (like Wikipedia, for example) are collaborative projects which cannot guarantee the verifiability or expertise of their entries.
OLPC Peru/Arahuay. (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2008, from the OLPC Wiki: http://wiki.laptop. org/go/OLPC_Peru/Arahuay
Audio Podcast
For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the following information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may include Producer, Director, etc.
Bell, T. & Phillips, T. 2008, May 6). A solar flare. Science @ NASA Podcast. Podcast retrieved from http://science.nasa.gov/podcast.htm
Video Podcasts
For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the following information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may include Producer, Director, etc.
Scott, D. (Producer). (2007, January 5). The community college classroom [Episode 7]. Adventures in Education. Podcast retrieved from http://www.adveeducation.com
Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources
Interviews, Email, and Other Personal Communication
No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead, parenthetically cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication in your main text only.
(E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001).
A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Motion Picture
Basic reference list format:
Producer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.
Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code).
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with International or National Availability
Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [ Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability
Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing labs: A history [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907)
Television Broadcast or Series Episode
Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast [ Television broadcast or Television series ]. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Single Episode of a Television Series
Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P. Producer (Producer), Series title. City of origin: Studio or distributor.
Wendy, S. W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising angel and the falling ape [Television series episode]. In D. Dude (Producer), Creatures and monsters. Los Angeles: Belarus Studios.
Television Broadcast
Important, I. M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The nightly news hour [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service.
A Television Series
Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting action show [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company.
Music Recording
Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from song writer]. On Title of album [Medium of recording]. Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date).
Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited.

Citation styles

Style guides
ACS Style Guide
The Associated Press Stylebook
The Chicago Manual of Style
Turabian
The Elements of Typographic Style
ISO 690
MHRA Style Guide
The MLA Handbook
The MLA Style Manual
The New York Times Manual
The Oxford Guide to Style
New Hart's Rules
The Publication Manual of the APA
Main articles: APA style, MLA style, The Chicago Manual of Style, Bluebook, ASA style, Harvard referencing, and Vancouver system
Citation styles can broadly be divided into styles common to the Humanities and the Sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems.[6] Others, such as MLA and APA styles, specify formats within the context of a single citation system.[5] These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles.[7][8][9] The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc, particular to their style.
A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs, consequently a number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long established as to have their own citation methods too: Stephanus pagination for Plato; Bekker numbers for Aristotle; Bible citation by book, chapter and verse; or Shakespeare notation by play, act and scene.

Citation Problems
Faulty Citations
Faulty citations include omissions of relevant papers, incorrect references, and quotation errors that misreport findings. This greatly impedes the growth of scientific knowledge because authors who fail to correctly report relevant studies are passing on false information to their readers. Furthermore, these papers are considered to be legitimate academic sources and thus more likely to be cited themselves by other papers in the future. Hence, this creates a snowball effect often leading to the proliferation of false information.[15]
Research has shown that authors often overlook relevant research. This often occurs because they search for evidence only within their own discipline. In a study on escalation bias, papers that supported commonly held beliefs were cited nine times more frequently as those that conflicted with common beliefs.[16]
Research done on this subject by marketing professor J. Scott Armstrong suggests that to prevent faulty citations, authors should use the verification of citations procedure - meaning they should attempt to contact original authors to ensure that they properly cite any studies they rely on to support their main findings. Furthermore, journal editors should require authors to confirm that they have read the papers that they have cited and that they have made reasonable attempts to verify citations. This will help to reduce errors in the reference list, reduce the number of spurious references, and reduce the likelihood of overlooking relevant studies. Once a paper has been published, journals should make it easy for researchers to post relevant studies that have been overlooked. These procedures should help to ensure that new studies build properly on prior research.[17]

Data gathering Techniques

Research basics: choosing a data-gathering technique and crafting questionnaires

The following excerpt explains two precursors to a project's success: choosing a data-gathering technique and crafting a questionnaire.

Choose your data-gathering technique based on the project's needs. Such techniques include in-person interviews, questionnaires sent via regular mail, phone interviews or use of the Internet. Keep in mind that different cultures and subcultures respond differently to various techniques, and that you should not limit yourself to one technique if combining two or three methods provides optimal results.

In-person interviews.
Researchers who conduct in-person interviews can benefit by:
* Receiving high contact and response rates
* Conducting long, in-depth interviews
* Supplementing participants' responses with observations of them
* Allowing respondents a chance to interact with stimuli (e.g., pictures, products)

At the same time, in-person interviews have their disadvantages. Such interviews:
* Can take weeks to complete
* Are expensive (P200.00- P500.0-0 plus per interview)
* Fail to contact gated communities
* Can be skewed by possible interviewer bias through expressions, comments, etc.

Mail.
Like in-person interviews, questionnaires sent via regular mail provide participants the chance to submit thoughtful responses, since they have time to look up information and reflect before responding, plus there is a high contact rate. Mailing out questionnaires is effective for surveying homogeneous groups, and there is relatively low cost involved with surveying a wide geographic area. This technique should not be used for general population studies, however. Some people cannot read or write well, so their responses can be unclear or skewed by misinterpretation of the question. Also, mailing questionnaires offers low return rates and can take weeks to complete. Hence, a company should entice potential participants by providing:
* An immediate prize (e.g., a small gift sticker, etc., included with questionnaire)
* A future prize (e.g., collectible gift, stamp, etc., sent after participants return questionnaires)
* A chance to win something (e.g., entering name in raffle drawing)

Additionally, the company should explain the value of the study and send a letter before the study announcing it and a reminder after potential participants receive the questionnaire with a set deadline.

Phone
While mailing questionnaires works when targeting a homogeneous group, a phone interview is the most popular method for researching general populations. This method boasts a good response rate, is effective in reaching most people and is quick and inexpensive. However, phone interviews are typically limited to 8 to 10 minutes, which demands that participants give short, top-of-mind responses. Phone interviews also limit whom you contact, since most people have answering machines or caller ID, or they mistake a researcher for a telemarketer.

Database generators
For a more accurate depiction of continuing behavior, you may want to merge existing information the company has about its customers' lifestyles with information obtained by tracking how often they use checks, credit cards, discount cards, etc. Likewise, employee databases provide a way to assess productivity by tracking their sales volume and expenses, for instance. Also, you can combine employment statistics (e.g., length of employment, job classification) with behavioral statistics (e.g., use of in-house communication, e-mail, Internet) to develop communication.

Internet tracking
Internet tracking that records how often a web site is "hit" can be skewed by search engines that count a hit even if a person does not see the page. Also, a hit does not indicate that a person paid attention or found the information useful. To address this, install a cookie on the computer that keeps track of an audience's behavior while on the web site.

Internet and e-mail
Using the Internet and e-mail to gather information is inexpensive and quick, and offers immediate analysis of perhaps thousands of responses. This technique, useful for surveying within an organization, is not suggested for general population studies, as it is limited to those with Internet access. Setting up such a complex database can prove costly, and privacy concerns arise. Researchers who use this method encounter similar problems as those who use regular mail.

Consider the following:

* How to control who gets a questionnaire
* How to prevent the same person from responding twice
* Whether all computers format the questionnaire correctly

DEVELOPING A QUESTIONNAIRE

When designing a questionnaire, keep in mind:
* Questions and response categories embody your variables.
* Response categories quantify variables for analysis.
* Standardizing how data is collected reduces bias and allows the study to be replicated.
Keep in mind also that a general population study is usually limited to an eight-minute phone call or four-page mail.

Types of questions

Researchers typically ask questions leading to responses that are fixed or open-ended. Fixed responses, used when you know the likely answers, are easy to code and analyze. Consider open-ended questions when you are uncertain of the response. Such questions should be used sparingly because they take time away from other short questions, and answers must be categorized. These questions should be written with "probes" (e.g., "Are there any other issues?") that allow respondents to elaborate.

Rules of thumb. These rules will make questionnaires more efficient and less biased. Sometimes there is a good reason for breaking these rules, but for the most part, you should:
* Keep it short, simple and to the point
* Write clearly in the language of the target population
* Keep a logical order for asking questions
* Save sensitive items for the end
* Avoid leading/loaded questions or combining multiple questions into one

Pre-test. Have people fill out the questionnaire or answer on the phone, and ask them at the end if they found anything difficult to answer. Make all necessary adjustments, and pretest the questionnaire again.

Data Collection Methods

Interviewing
Observing
Artifacts,documents, & records
Visual methods
Personal experience
Data management methods
Computer-assisted methods
Textual analysis